".....andragogy is simply another model of assumptions about adult learners to be used alongside the pedagogical model of assumptions, thereby providing two alternative models for testing out the assumptions as to their 'fit' with particular situations. Furthermore, the models are probably most useful when seen not as dichotomous but rather as two ends of a spectrum , with a realistic assumption (about learners) in a given situation falling in between the two ends" (Knowles, 1980, p. 43 )
Andragogy was formulated by a German teacher in 1833 by Alexander Kapp. He used it to describe elements of Platos education theory, andr - meaning 'man' and agogos meaning 'leading'. The term andragogy seemed to have disappeared but in 1968 a professor in Boston University used the word andragogy in his journal thus catching all the adult learners attention.
Knowles characterised four characteristics of adult learners, pointing out that assumptions of child learners are completely different to adult learners on which the traditional pedagogy is hypothesised. The fifth point was added later.
Self concept: his or her self concept of personality becomes a self directed being rather than a dependent individual.
Experience: accumulate a reservoir of experience thus becoming a base to build learning.
Readiness to learn: his or her readiness to learn becomes associated with the developmental tasks of the social roles.
Orientation to learning: because the individual is maturing in time, his/her perspective changes from postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application and from subject centeredness to performance centreredness.
Motivation to learn: motivation to learn becomes internal as a person matures.
Androgogy requires that adult learners to identify their learning needs and how can those needs be satisfied. It insists that learning should be active rather than a passive process. When concerned with solving problems adult learning is most effective.
There are some issues with Knowles theory, Merriam and Caffarella (1991: 249) says that the conception of adragogy is an attempt of build a model of adult learning that is weighed in the endowment of adult learning.
Second problem with Knowles ardrogogy is the extensive use of a model of relationship copied from humanistic clinical psychology, especially the qualities of good facilitation this was argued by Carl Rogers. But Knowles adds in other points which becomes a
important to scientific curriculum thus making and behaviour modifications. He uses ideas from
psychologists working in two different and opposing therapeutic traditions (behavioural and humanist) thus meaning the model is quite not right.
Third is that the model is not clear whether this is a theory or assumptions about learning. It could be that he defined androgogy as an art and science in helping adults learn against pedagogy.
Overall the important point in adragogy is perspective: the instructor being viewed as authority figure to a facilitator in the learning process. Due to this shift in this model of education to more collaborative learning process, one has played an important role in continuation of education through the excitement of education and this role will continue to grow even more as adults return to the educational environment late in their life.
Resources
Knowles, M. S. (1980). Modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Revised and updated. Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, Association Press.
Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1991)Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
“Forest School is an inspirational process that offers children and young people opportunities to achieve, develop confidence and self esteem, through hands-on learning experiences in a local woodland environment.” Forest School Network.
It was first developed in Sweden. The ethos of a Forest school is to inspire and encourage individuals of any age through absolute experiences and involving themselves in motivating and achievable tasks. Participation in woodland helps young people and children to make a connection and develop respectfulness towards the nature this promoting physical and mental health.
Forest schools in the UK adapted the same norms as the Scandinavian approach towards the Forest School, therefore learning about the outdoor environment all year round and in all weather which is normal.
A study that was done in Sweden which consisted of 13 month period found that children whom were living in areas which was urban were less happy than those children whom are attending Forrest school kindergarten in a countryside environment.
This was due to the fact the children who attended Forest School played for longer amount of time, there are large choices of play in nature, and it observed that children were less likely to get annoyed at each other compared to the children in the city kindergarten. The study showed that children whom live in the city have low concentration level, their stress level rose, and they become annoyed when they're interrupted thus showing aggression. Whereas the Forest School children were more respectful.
The study also observed that children who attended Forest School were less likely to get sick by 25% than the city children, this was due to the outside air which is better than inside air thus preventing the children from becoming exposed to viruses and bacteria. Because of the high level of stress the city children are suffering from its likely to effect their immune system thus weakening to resist infections.
The positive impact of Forest School is that it is relaxing, fun and is set in a natural environment. Because of the amount of freedom they have, these children are more likely to develop stronger social skills, confidence, concentration level, and high self esteem in their own abilities. After the introduction of Forest Schools, it has developed opportunities for children and adults of all ages in an outdoor setting to mature life skills such as: communication skills, self awareness, independence and altruism. All the individuals who participated in Forest School are likely to gain confidence in their own abilities. Learners whom are kinesthetics are well suited to learn in an outdoor environment.
A recent study shows that those who have Special Educational Needs such as ADD, ADHD, Autism and Asperger's syndrome and are involved in Forest School programmes have a definite good impact on learning and behaviour. Therefore it strengthens the relationships with the authority figures and other other individuals around them, but in a different situation such as mainstream it would cause stress and anti social behaviour.
Maria Montessori was born in 1870. Though her parents wanted Maria to peruse the career path of a teacher, she was determined to become a doctor. But her father Alessandro was against it due to the fact it was an all male profession, and of course on her appliance for this particular course the head of the university declined her.
Eventually Pope Leo XIII intervened on Montessori's behalf. In 1890 Montessori enrolled to University of Rome to study maths, physics and natural sciences, after two years she received her diploma. Later she entered the Faculty of Medicine thus becoming the first woman to qualify as a physician.
In 1897 she volunteered to join a research programme at the psychiatric clinic of the University of Rome, due to her work she would visit the asylum for the insane. The caretaker told her in how the children picked crumbs off the floor after they finished their meal, Maria realised because of the unfurnished room the children were desperate for sensorial stimulation and activities for their hands. She began to read books on special needs children especially by Jean Itard and Eduard Seguin, their work consisted of experiments using manipulatives to educate children who were deaf and mentally challenged. Montessori tried the same matters out with the asylum children and found it to be successful. The achievement of the children were considered to be average on a test which was designed for normal children.
On January 6th of 1907 Montessori opened her first ever Casa dei Bambini or ‘Children’s House'. In this place she started an experiment consisting of combination between educational and childhood development with the slums of Rome. Montessori worked with children from age three to six years old, she used scientific approach of observation and diagnosis. Her results concluded by saying that children compose their own personality when they connect with nature, and development of transformation appears when the children followed their own path. As a result all the negative emotions such as fear, aggression and tantrums disappeared; positive behaviour emerged in place
such as respect for others, sympathy and the desire to help. The children could reach their full potential by following the children's inborn needs, interests and tendencies. In this present age, advanced research in brain development, psychology, and anthropology support Montessori methods.
In 1909 Montessori gave her first training course to around 100 students. Her notes became her first book, it was published in the same year, which was translated in the United States in 1912 called The Montessori Method. Soon if was translated into 20 different languages and became an epic influence in the field of education.
So overall Montessoris philosophy is based on two important development needs of children:
- freedom within limits
- an environment which exposes the children to experiences and materials
The main hypothesis of Montessori education are:
- children are different from adults and need to be respected.
- unlike adults children have usual sensitivity and intellectual ability to absorb and learn.
- the most important years of children's are the first six years when unconscious learning is brought
into conscious level.
Play is significant towards the development of the child, it is considered as a universal language of childhood. For a child, play is way of participating towards the sociological aspect of the world without even realising.
After a child is born he/she will with come across with many things, such as toys and games to expand their knowledge and understanding of the world and of each other thus improving cognitive, imaginative creation, emotional and social development. It is up to the adults to provide props, time, space, create an environment for the child to grow, the playworker will need to observe the child with time and plan and only participate, only when it is appropriate.
There are ten characteristics of play:
Active: where children use their imagination and energy to play, and participate with other people.
Adventurous and risky: helps the children to take a step further and explore the unknown.
Communicative: verbal or non verbal communication towards other children or adults thus sharing knowledge and information.
Enjoyable: pleasure and satisfaction through play.
Involved: when the child is fully concentrated and absorbed in wheat they're doing.
Meaningful: copying I'm what they've seen or heard and in what they've learned.
Sociable and interactive: playing with their friends or adults but sometimes they prefer to play alone.
Symbolic: such as role playing, it can represent past or future.
Therapeutic: helping the child through emotions and experiences.
Voluntary: they choose whether to play or not, it can include changing their roles, imagination, and locations.
Israeli psychologist Sara Smilansky conducted research on dramatic and sociodramatic play in cognitive and socio-emotional development in 1970-80. Smilansky's definition of dramatic play involved four elements: a child observed in role play; the necessary items that's needed flor the play will transform using make make-believe; in place of actions and situations exclamations and verbal
communications are used; the role plays will last at least ten minutes.
In a socio-dramatic play setting, all the four points are present and two more: two players are likely to collaborate within the play scene. Second is the verbal communication that is involved.
Smilansky concluded that sociodramatic play triggers resources that activates social, emotional and intellectual growth in the child, thus affecting the child's success in school.
The adults role changes during play in early childhood: during birth to 18 months; likely to provide with interesting and safer toys; introduction of the baby towards the friends and families; communications towards the baby, especially naming and describing things.
Toddler (12 months to 2 years): continuation of secure base to play and explore; the adult will provide favourable circumstances for toddlers to play in small groups or pairs; produce variety of types of play: adult will be actively involved with the play, and adventures.
Young children 2 1/2 to 6 years: adult will encourage active explorations of the world; continuation of providing a secure base; provides range of materials, time, equipment and space; provides support e.g. assemble a play scenario, describing and discussing scenarios of a play during, before or after,
handling children's conflict and emotional situations.
